Attitudes vs beliefs | Management homework help

What are some of the differences between “attitudes” and “beliefs,” as described in Ch. 4 of the text?   Must be atleast 300 words!!!
Please use the reading material below!!
 
 
 
The primary message of this chapter can be summarized by the Boy Scout motto “Be prepared!” Have you ever spent an hour or two at a group or team meeting only to find out no one was ready to make a meaningful, informed contribution? Many wasted meetings boil down to the fact that group members just haven’t done their homework. GIGO is the acronym that computer programmers use for the expression “Garbage in, garbage out.” If you put poor information (garbage) into a computer program, you get poor results as output. It works the same way in group discussions.1 To achieve a quality decision, a group needs quality information gleaned from research as well as effective reasoning and critical-thinking skills.2 In this chapter we delve into the processes by which groups accomplish their work and achieve their goals. We’ll discuss how to prepare effectively for a group discussion and how to use research and critical-thinking skills to enhance the quality of the work accomplished by group members. The Greek philosopher Socrates believed that the primary goal of dialogue and discussion was the search for truth. Today, group discussion continues to be a trusted method of seeking answers to tough questions. Our legal system is based on the idea that a jury of adults, after hearing evidence and using their best critical-thinking and analysis skills, should be able to decide whether someone is guilty of a crime. In corporations, teams and task forces hammer out key decisions. Regardless of a group’s composition, goal, or context, its discussion will be more productive if group members have prepared and if they know how to critically evaluate information used to reach reasoned conclusions.3 How to Develop a Discussion Plan Imagine the instructor in your group communication class has assigned you to a group or committee, perhaps, so that you can make a recommendation, solve a problem, or make a decision. What should you do first? How would you develop a plan to get your work accomplished? What should you not do? It’s tempting for members to jump in with both feet and start deciding what to do without adequate research or preparation. The most effective groups develop a plan for accomplishing their goal. Groups are more likely to deliberate wisely and effectively if group members clarify their goals, have good discussion skills, and are motivated to do a good job.4 Suggesting solutions or making final recommendations at your first meeting is not a good idea. Effective groups prepare for discussion.5 We’ll outline the general parts of a discussion plan and then spend the rest of the chapter describing these strategies in detail. Get Acquainted with Your Group Members “Let’s get down to business,” “What are we supposed to do,” and “Get to the point” are typical statements heard at most first team or group meetings. It’s important, however, to take a few minutes to get better acquainted with group members before focusing on the task. A consistent conclusion from teamwork research is that it is vital to ensure that group members know one another in order to develop appropriate roles and responsibilities.6 In fact, often the most serious problems group and team members encounter are not caused by task issues, but rather because people have difficulty relating to each other. Taking time to establish good working relationships and trust can help a group or team be more productive in the long run.7 Do more than just announce your name to the group. Research has documented that if you and other group members take the time to identify who has special expertise or information, the group can work more effectively.8 Perhaps you can provide information about how much experience you have with the topic, or, if no specific task has been articulated, you can talk about your experience in working on group and team projects. You may want to exchange phone numbers and e-mail addresses so that you can contact one another. You need not artificially prolong this initial orientation period, but it will be useful for group or team members to spend some time getting to know their fellow members. Some groups appoint someone to help facilitate their discussion, but most groups figure out the best way to get started on their own. One research team found that self-managing groups can be quite effective, especially with routine tasks.9 Sharing personal information can establish a climate of cooperation. Research suggests that it’s important to encourage all members to participate early in the group’s history. Communication researcher Joseph Bonito found that groups that had higher rates of participation within the first minute of their discussion had higher-quality discussion during the entire meeting; the group members made more task-relevant contributions (that is, they made comments that helped the group make a decision or solve a problem).10 So make sure all group members are contributing early in the group’s history. In addition to taking time to get acquainted with group members, avoid the temptation to make quick decisions. Groups sometimes feel pressure to get something accomplished. One team of researchers found that some groups encounter a “speed trap” when group members focus too much on speed and not enough on quality.11 In essence, the researchers found that an overemphasis on making fast decisions results in a group’s getting caught in a spiral of emphasizing speed and efficiency over quality of decision making. Since norms are established early in the group’s history, make sure the speed of decision making doesn’t become the group’s goal. Clarify the Goals of the Group Once you’ve completed introductions, make sure you know what the group’s purpose, goal, and assignment are. A key question to ask as the group begins focusing on the goal is, “When do you know you’re finished with your task?” When developing the group’s goal, visualize what the completed project will look like. Is the goal to produce a written report or to deliver an oral presentation in which you will make recommendations? You should be able to summarize the group’s goal in your own words. Most work-group goals boil down to one of three tasks: (1) generating ideas, information, or options; (2) making a choice, often about how to solve a larger problem; and (3) putting an idea into action. Your team may be involved in only one of these tasks, or all three. Whatever the group goal, it should be expressed in the form of a question that the group will discuss. Later in this chapter, we suggest that you formulate a discussion question as either a fact (something did or did not happen), a prediction (something will happen), a value (something is better or worse than something else), or a policy (something should be done). Consider writing your question or group goal on a chalkboard or flipchart for all team members to see. When the group starts to wobble or get offtrack, point group members back to the central reason for the discussion—to achieve the goal of the group. As we noted in Chapter 1, having a clear, elevating goal is one of the essential requirements for an effective team. Leadership expert Stephen Covey suggests that to be successful you should “begin with the end in mind.”12 If you find that your group is not achieving its goals or that you’re just not making the progress you expect, the reasons may be one of the following: Your team has an unclear vision of what it wants to accomplish. Team members don’t know what is expected of them; they need help clarifying their roles. Team members aren’t clear about the process of how work gets done. They have such questions as “Do we work individually or together? Do we report our findings at each group meeting?” Team members aren’t getting along. They need to focus on developing greater trust and managing tensions before getting down to business.13 Establishing clear goals can help group members have a clearer vision, understand their individual roles, develop a work plan, and address the uncertainty that is present when the group first get together.14 Develop a Plan for Gathering Information and Analyzing Issues Once you develop your discussion question and clarify your goal, you need to collect information and research conclusions to help answer your question. Research consistently finds that developing a collaborative plan to accomplish the work results in higher-quality results.15 Research has also found that groups tend to be too optimistic in judging their efficiency. It typically takes more, rather than less, time to accomplish group tasks than group members realize.16 So be realistic in estimating how long it will take the group to complete its work. Developing a step-by-step plan that involves all group members will help your group work effectively and create a realistic timetable for accomplishing its goal.17 However, although planning is important, research also suggests that it is beneficial to adjust your plans as your group continues its work. Group communication researchers Leslie DeChurch and Craig Haas found that groups that appropriately adapted to situations and problems that were encountered along the way had a higher-quality solution than groups that didn’t deviate from their plan.18 Their conclusion: Have a plan but give yourself permission to react and respond to what you discover as you seek to make a decision or solve a problem. Before you start surfing the Internet for information, find out what you and your group members already know about the topic and issues. As we have noted, researchers have found that one of the most important things you can do early in a group’s history is to identify who in your group has special skills or is an expert on the topic you’re discussing.19 Once you identify information experts, make sure that they contribute to the group’s conversation.20 After assessing your group’s knowledge, figure out what kind of information you need. Identify who is most interested in specific aspects of your topic. Groups that figure out how to learn together do a better job of managing conflict are overall more effective in achieving their goal.21 Begin to “divide and conquer.” Assign members—or ask for volunteers—to begin researching the topic. Coordinate your group’s research efforts rather than having group members scatter and then plunge into the research process. Without coordination, you may needlessly duplicate your research efforts. In developing a coordinated plan to do the work, educator Lisa Snyder suggests that you will be more effective and efficient if you do these things: Focus on the purpose of the project. Encourage all members to participate by positively reinforcing the contributions of others. Establish a timeline of the due dates. Keep the project on track by periodically reviewing whether you are adhering to the timeline.22 Besides just divvying up the work, be sure to give yourselves specific deadlines when the information will be collected. Allow plenty of time for the group to discuss the information (rather than just compiling the facts and data) before you make final recommendations. Research suggests that groups that have more time to solve a problem tend to do a better job of sharing information among group members; this finding is especially true of virtual groups sharing information via the Internet.23 The more time allotted to solve a problem, the greater the chance that group members will share what they know. So, in addition to making assignments, indicate when the information should be shared with the group. Develop a concrete plan for structuring the workload. Especially if you have limited time, divvying up the research tasks is a good idea. However, some research suggests that with a longer time period and low levels of information, it may be best to work collaboratively rather than independently to gather information.24 What’s important is to make sure that group members share among themselves the information they gather. According to a research team led by communication researcher Charles Pavitt, once a group member shares information or a proposal with the group, all group members will join in the discussion and talk about the ideas presented.25 However, evidence also suggests that some people may dominate the discussion, as indicated in a classic study by Robert Bales. He found that some group members can dominate at least 40 percent of the talk time.26 To maximize the benefits of information sharing and group deliberation, avoid letting one person run the show. Seek balanced participation and sharing of ideas and information. Follow a Structured Agenda to Accomplish the Task © 2012 Scott Adams, Inc./Dist. by Universal Uclick Here’s a powerful principle for effective group discussion: Groups and teams need an agenda to help them organize their discussion. An agenda is a thoughtfully prepared list of the issues, topics, and questions that the group will discuss. There is an art to preparing an agenda—it is not just a list of topics that come to mind. Appendix A presents principles and practices for developing meeting agendas, as well as strategies for facilitating meeting discussion. A group needs not only an agenda for each meeting but also an overarching plan of how to accomplish the group’s goal. If your group is solving a problem, then a straightforward problem-solving agenda should provide the necessary structure. In Chapter 11 we share several techniques and methods for organizing a problem-solving discussion. The most basic problem-solving structure includes these steps: 1. Identify and define the problem. 2. Analyze the problem. 3. Generate several possible solutions. 4. Select the best solution or combination of solutions. 5. Test and implement the solution. Organizing your overall work plan around these steps can help keep your group on track. Share Information with Others Groups typically make better decisions than individuals because there is typically more information among a group of people than in one person.27 Researchers have consistently found that groups that have more information are more likely to arrive at a better solution or outcome.28 But there’s a problem: Group members sometimes don’t share what they know.29 Research has documented that we often talk about and think about ourselves rather than consider making the group goals our concern.30 What factors make group members more willing to share their knowledge? According to one study, you are more likely to share information if: (1) everyone in the group already knows the information—that is, there is a common core of information that group members talk about; (2) at least one person knows the same information you know; (3) you are perceived to be an expert on the topic at hand;31 or (4) you want to enhance your position or influence in the group. Group members may share even those information that everyone already knows to confirm that they are “in the know” and part of the group’s core of well-respected members.32 In addition, we tend to share information with people we like and withhold information from people we don’t like.33 There are several reasons why it’s important to share information with the entire group. In addition to groups’ having more information on which to base their deliberations, shared information can help allay group conflict and tensions and sort through disagreements.34 Researchers have also found that not only sharing information with one another but also talking about how information should be shared helps a group perform better.35 It helps to develop a plan to share information with other group members.36 Besides resulting in better-quality outcomes, another advantage to group members’ sharing what they know is more overall satisfaction with their participation in the group.37 Also, when groups don’t share all of the information that they have with one another, they forge ahead and make a decision or solve a problem based on incomplete information.38 So what can group members do to ensure that they share information with one another? Consider these practical tips: Work to develop a positive, conforming, and, cohesive group climate.39 Celebrate when your group achieves a short-term goal; find ways to catch group members doing things well and then offer a positive, reinforcing comment such as “Good job of finding that key piece of information.” Help the entire group as well as each member feel valued. Group members who feel positive about the group’s goal, as well as believe they are making important contributions, are more likely to share information with other group members.40 Assess the range of knowledge, education, and information among group members. Research suggests that group members who have different levels of information and education are likely to share information among team members only up to a certain point.41 An educationally diverse group will tend to share less information among team members. Don’t let differences in education, knowledge, or culture keep group members from sharing what each of them knows. Assess the group’s cultural diversity. Sometimes people who are in the cultural minority are less likely to share what they know, so encourage them to share information with the entire group. Encourage quiet members to participate. Some group members are shy, while others are just apprehensive about speaking up in any situation. Use the write-and-then-speak technique. Ask group members to first jot down some of their information on a piece of paper and then take turns sharing what they have written. Having a written “script” may encourage quieter members to speak up. Use online, e-mail, text, or instant messages to contribute information. Consider asking group members to first provide a written report via e-mail or other electronic means to every group member. Using the structure provided by having information in written form may gently prod each group member to share what he or she knows.42 Explicitly talk about the problem of unshared information. Also talk about the importance of being open to new information and new ideas.43 Make it a group concern. Some groups have found that group members who receive training in the importance of sharing information do, in fact, share more information.44 Work together to find research and information; don’t worry whether group members are finding similar information. One study found that if several group members found the same information, it was more likely to be shared with the entire group. So duplicating each other’s research can increase the likelihood that the information will be shared with the entire group.45 Determine How to Present Your Information Once you have developed your conclusions, you’ll need to decide how best to present your information to others. Appendix B describes three common formats for doing this: (1) a panel discussion, (2) a symposium presentation, and (3) a forum presentation. In addition to presenting your conclusions orally, you may need to prepare a written report. Consider organizing your written report around the problem-solving steps noted earlier (definition of the problem, analysis of the problem, possible solutions, best solution or solutions). Most written reports are prepared for a specific individual or group. Keep your reader in mind as you develop the written report. Follow any specific guidelines or structure prescribed for you. PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO PRACTICE: What Should You Do with Group Members Who Don’t Pull Their Weight? A common disadvantage of working in groups and teams is that sometimes a team member may not follow through on assignments, actively contribute, or, even worse, may not attend team meetings. This behavior, known as social loafing, creates much discord and anguish, especially for group members who are following through on assignments and tasks. One of the biggest triggers of conflict is someone who thinks he or she is unfairly doing more work than others. Rather than ignore the problem (especially if a loafing group member is significantly hindering the work of the entire group), group members should confront the issue. But how can the problem be addressed without adding to the stress? Understanding the Problem First, it helps to understand why someone may be loafing. Why do some people not contribute to the group? Consider these possibilities: APATHY: The loafing group member may simply not care whether the group succeeds or not. WORK “CHALLENGED”: The slacking group member may just not like to work very hard. Perhaps he or she has gotten by with doing minimal or no work on other projects and this is just another opportunity to let others do the work. TOO BUSY: The loafer may have too much to do and has made working in the group a low priority, hoping that others will pick up the slack. NO GROUP ACCOUNTABILITY: There may be no way tracking who does what; the loafer can skate through the process because there are no consequences of not doing the work. Addressing the Problem Regardless of the reason for loafing, you and your team members simply want the social loafer to loaf less and work more. Understanding why someone may be goofing off may be interesting, but what you may really want to know is “What do we do to get someone to do his or her work?” DEVELOP CLEAR GROUND RULES: Early in your group’s history, establish an explicit rule that each group member is expected to complete his or her assignments. Even if your group has been meeting for a while, if you’ve not developed ground rules and explicit operating procedures, it may be useful to do so. Talking about how the work should be accomplished makes the issue a group concern rather than a contentious issue between one or two group members. MAKE MEMBERS ACCOUNTABLE: Build in greater accountability so that assignments and due dates are clear and each member has to report to the entire group on the status of work accomplished. How do you make people accountable? As a group, develop specific assignments for individual team members. Then provide deadlines for when the work should be completed. Group members could periodically provide a status update on this individual work, either as part of the group’s regular agenda or by providing a status report via e-mail or texting or on a team Web page. Perhaps each meeting could begin with a status report from each group member. If there’s no accountability for individual effort, it’s easier to let others do the work.46 MAKE THE ISSUE A GROUP CONCERN: What if you’ve developed a system of accountability, and the social loafer is still not doing his or her work? One person should not attack the offending group member; that will only add to a climate of defensiveness and create more stress. Instead, the group as a whole should address the loafer, calmly describing how the lack of individual productivity is creating a problem for the group.47 REPORT THE PROBLEM. Rather than bearing the problem alone, if the problem seems to continue without any change, let your instructor or supervisor know that a problem exists. Also, when sharing the problem, let your instructor or supervisor know what you have done to address the issue. Although we’ve offered several suggestions, realize this: You ultimately can’t change another person’s behavior. Despite what group members do (or don’t do), there are no surefire strategies to spur a loafing member to action.48 The rest of the group may simply have to pick up the slack. REVIEW: HOW TO DEVELOP A DISCUSSION PLAN What to Do How to Do It Get acquainted with your group members Introduce yourself Share your contact information Discuss the experience you’ve had with the topic Clarify the goals of the group Explicitly write down the purposes and goals of the group Identify whether your key purpose is to (1) gather information, (2) make a choice or solve a problem, (3) put an idea into action, or (4) achieve two or more of these purposes Describe what it will look like when your group is finished with its task. Answer the question: How will you know when you are done? Develop a plan for gathering information and analyzing issues Identify and assess the information you already know Develop a written plan that indicates what you already know and what you need to know Give members assignments or ask for volunteers for gathering or analyzing information with a date for reporting back to the group Follow a structured agenda to accomplish the task Identify the topics and issues you need to discuss at each meeting Consider using the traditional problem solving agenda to develop the overarching plan: Identify and define the problem, analyze, generate several solutions, select the best solution, test and implement the solution Develop a written agenda for each meeting using agenda development skills discussed in Appendix A Share information with others Develop a positive climate so group members feel comfortable sharing what they know Explicitly ask other group members if they have information to share Sometimes during meetings have group members first write information they know and then share it orally Explicitly talk about the problem of unshared information and then work together to make sure group members share what they know Determine how to present your information Decide whether you will use a (1) panel discussion format, (2) symposium presentation, or (3) forum presentation (or some combination of all three) when presenting your information to an audience Decide what written materials you need to develop and share with others Consider using the traditional problem-solving structure (identify and define the problem, analyze the problem, generate several solutions, select the best solution, test and implement the solution) or organize both oral and written information using this structure How to Formulate Discussion Questions Before most scientists begin an experiment or conduct research, they have some idea of what they are looking for. Some researchers start with a hypothesis, a guess based on previous theory and research about what they will find in their search for new knowledge. Other investigators formulate a research question that provides a direction for their research. Like scientific research, problem solving seeks answers to questions. It makes sense, then, for group members to formulate a question before searching for answers. By identifying a specific question they must answer, members can reduce some of the initial uncertainty accompanying their discussion. A discussion question should be phrased with considerable care. This is an important part of initiating and organizing any group discussion, particularly problem-solving discussions, because the quality and specificity of a question usually determine the quality of the answer. The better a group prepares a discussion question, the more clearly articulated will be the group’s goal, and the greater will be the chances for a productive and orderly discussion. For some group discussions and conferences, the questions are predetermined. Government committees and juries exemplify such groups. But usually groups are faced with a problem or need and are responsible for formulating a specific question to guide their deliberations. There are basically four types of discussion questions: (1) questions of fact, (2) questions of prediction, (3) questions of value, and (4) questions of policy. To help you determine which type is most appropriate for your various group discussions, we discuss each in the following sections.49 Questions of Fact Some questions of fact are phrased such that the answer to the question is either yes or no. Something either did or did not occur. (Although, of course, a yes or no response can be qualified in terms of the probability of its accuracy.) The question “Did the New York Yankees win the World Series in 2009?” is a question of fact—either they did or they did not. Questions of fact like that can simply be looked up online or in library sources and probably don’t require group deliberations. On the other hand, a group may be asked to investigate a question such as “Did John Smith violate our company ethics policy last year?” VIRTUAL GROUPS When working on a group or team project, it may be useful to share your initial research findings electronically via e-mail, a group Facebook page, or other electronic means. A study by Carol Saunders and Shaila Miranda concluded that virtual groups that collaborate only via e-mail or text typically have access to more information.50 According to the research, although face-to-face group meetings result in more information-sharing initially, over the long term, exchanging information via e-mail may ensure that more information is shared and that all members of the group receive the information. In addition to using e-mail, consider the following strategies to facilitate sharing information. Develop a group listserv through which any group member can send information to every other group member simultaneously. For an extensive group project, consider developing a group Web page, or use Facebook or other collaborative software program to develop a common virtual space in which to collaborate. In addition, your university may have its own e-learning system, such as Blackboard, to assist in virtual collaboration. Consider assigning roles to different members for maintaining the Web page, such as posting minutes of previous meetings, serving as the Web master of the site, and keeping track of whether projects are completed on time. Periodically ask group members if they have information to share with all group members. Dennis Gouran suggests that one way to investigate a question of fact is to construct a story or narrative to answer the discussion question.51 To determine, for example, whether John Smith did violate an ethics policy, the group should reconstruct what John Smith did or did not do. The reconstruction involves developing a story with a beginning, a middle, and an end to answer the question. In trying to answer a question of fact, make sure that all group members understand the key words and phrases in the discussion question. For example, faced with the question “Are there more incidents of terrorism in the United States today than there were before September 11, 2001?” a group will want to clearly define what an “incident of terrorism” is before answering the question. Does it mean any act of violence? By reducing the ambiguity of a question, a group can save considerable time in agreeing on a final answer. Your group’s objective will determine whether or not you should investigate a question of fact. If the group needs to discover what is true and what is false, then formulate a question of fact and define the key words in the question to give it greater focus and clarity. If the group needs to make a less objective value judgment or to suggest solutions to a problem, choose one of the types of questions discussed below. Questions of Prediction Will a tuition increase result in the university’s having a balanced budget? Will the levee withstand a force-3 hurricane? Will the new airport security measures make air travel safer? A question of prediction asks whether something is likely to occur or may occur under a certain set of circumstances. In the question “Will a tuition increase result in the university’s having a balanced budget?” the set of circumstances is a tuition increase. How does a group attempt to answer such a question? Groups look for examples of what happened in similar situations. For instance, the university might survey other universities to see how their budgets were affected when tuition was increased. Groups may also simply use logic and reasoning based on the available evidence to determine what will or will not happen in the future. Will you use questions of prediction when communicating with others in small groups? That’s a question of prediction that you’ll answer based on your past experiences. Group researcher Dennis Gouran suggests that, when investigating questions of prediction, an appropriate agenda for groups to follow would include these four steps:52 1. Develop if-then statements: Identify one or more if-then statements to focus and clarify the issues. Here’s an example of an if-then statement: If tuition is increased, then the university will have a balanced budget. Here’s another if-then statement: If tuition is increased, then the university can continue its exp